Reading Passage 2

Does education fuel economic growth?

Section A

In the 18th and 19th centuries, many Western countries invested heavily in public education. The argument was simple: an educated workforce would be more productive and would drive economic growth. This idea has become one of the most widely accepted beliefs in economics and public policy. But is it actually true? Does education really lead to economic prosperity?

Sheilagh Ogilvie, a professor of economic history at the University of Cambridge, has spent decades investigating this question. Her research, which focuses on a community of German-speaking villagers in a region called the Black Forest, challenges many of the assumptions about education and economic development. The results are surprising and, for some, uncomfortable.

Section B

The community Ogilvie studied, known as Wildberg, was part of the Duchy of Wurttemberg. Thanks to the duchy's Protestant rulers, who believed that everyone should be able to read the Bible, Wildberg had remarkably high literacy rates from the 17th century onwards. Parish records show that by the late 1600s, the majority of men could read and write. Female literacy lagged behind but was still high compared with other parts of Europe. By the early 1700s, Wildberg had achieved near-universal male literacy, well ahead of most European communities. The duchy also established a comprehensive school system, with compulsory attendance for both boys and girls.

Section C

Despite these impressive educational achievements, Wildberg remained poor. The villagers did not experience the economic growth that the education theory would predict. While other parts of Europe, including regions with much lower literacy rates, were developing new industries and experiencing rising living standards, Wildberg's economy stagnated. The villagers continued to work primarily in traditional occupations: farming, spinning yarn, and weaving cloth. Their incomes remained low, and many were forced to emigrate in search of better opportunities. Ogilvie found that the descendants of Wildberg's educated population were no more prosperous than their ancestors had been.

Section D

Why didn't education translate into economic growth? Ogilvie argues that education alone is not enough. What matters is whether people are free to use their education productively. In Wildberg, a range of institutional barriers prevented people from putting their skills to use. The duchy's rulers imposed strict regulations on economic activity. A system of guilds controlled who could practice certain trades, how many people could work in each occupation, and what prices could be charged. Anyone who tried to set up a new business or introduce an innovation risked punishment. Even moving to a different village to seek better employment required official permission, which was often refused. The local church also exercised considerable control, with the pastor monitoring villagers' behaviour and delivering a regular sermon warning against economic ambition and social mobility.

Section E

Ogilvie's research suggests that the key to economic growth is not education per se, but rather the institutions and policies that allow people to make use of their education. In societies where individuals are free to start businesses, move to where the jobs are, and keep the rewards of their efforts, education can indeed be a powerful driver of prosperity. But in societies where these freedoms are restricted, education may have little economic impact. This finding has important implications for modern development policy, which often focuses heavily on building schools and increasing enrolment without paying enough attention to the broader institutional environment. In some cases, governments have imposed a fine on parents who failed to send their children to school, without addressing the barriers that prevent educated people from finding productive employment.

Section F

Ogilvie's work has generated considerable debate among economists and historians. Some critics argue that her findings are specific to one small community and cannot be generalised. Others point out that the relationship between education and economic growth is complex and may take generations to materialise. But Ogilvie maintains that the case of Wildberg illustrates a broader truth: that human capital is only valuable when people are free to use it. She notes that similar patterns can be seen in other historical contexts, where educated populations remained poor because of restrictive institutions. The guilds, she argues, were particularly damaging because they stifled competition and prevented innovation. They protected the interests of existing tradespeople at the expense of newcomers and consumers, creating a system that resisted change and perpetuated poverty.

Reading Passage 3

Timur Gareyev — blindfold chess champion

A

Timur Gareyev is a chess grandmaster from Uzbekistan who has broken records for simultaneous blindfold chess. In blindfold chess, the player cannot see the board or pieces and must keep track of all the positions in their head. In 2016, Gareyev played 48 games of blindfold chess simultaneously at the University of Las Vegas, winning 35, drawing seven and losing only six. This remarkable feat required him to keep track of more than 1,500 pieces across 48 boards, all from memory.

B

Gareyev learned to play chess at the age of six in his home city of Tashkent. He showed exceptional talent from an early age and quickly progressed through the ranks of competitive chess. By his teens, he was already a strong international player. He moved to the United States to study and play chess, eventually settling in Arizona. Despite his success in regular chess, it was blindfold chess that would bring him the greatest recognition. He describes blindfold chess as a way of exploring the limits of human memory and concentration.

C

The history of blindfold chess goes back centuries. The earliest recorded blindfold games were played in the Islamic world during the Middle Ages. In Europe, the tradition became popular in the 18th and 19th centuries, when exhibition matches drew large crowds. The great Cuban player Jose Raul Capablanca once played blindfold against a room full of opponents. But it was only in the modern era that players began attempting the extreme feats of simultaneous blindfold play that Gareyev has mastered.

D

Scientists have been fascinated by the cognitive abilities of blindfold chess players. Research has shown that expert chess players do not simply have better memories than other people. Instead, they have developed highly specialised memory skills that allow them to encode chess positions in a compact, efficient way. When an expert looks at a chess position, they do not see individual pieces; they see patterns and structures that they can store in long-term memory. This process is known as "chunking", and it is the key to understanding how blindfold chess is possible.

E

Gareyev has participated in several scientific studies designed to understand his abilities. Researchers at the University of California used brain imaging technology to observe his brain activity while he played blindfold chess. They found that his brain showed unusual patterns of activation, with strong communication between areas responsible for spatial reasoning, visual imagination and working memory. Interestingly, the areas of his brain associated with visual processing were highly active, even though he could not see the board. This suggests that blindfold chess players create vivid mental images of the board in their mind's eye.

F

One of the most surprising findings from the research is that Gareyev does not rely on a single strategy for keeping track of multiple games. Instead, he uses a flexible combination of techniques. For some positions, he uses visual imagery, creating a mental picture of the board. For others, he relies on verbal descriptions, essentially narrating the position to himself. He also uses a system of numbers to encode piece positions, converting spatial information into a format that is easier to remember. This multi-modal approach, combining visual, verbal and numerical strategies, may be what allows him to manage so many games simultaneously.

G

Gareyev's achievements raise interesting questions about the nature of human cognitive ability. Are his skills the result of innate talent, or can they be developed through practice? Gareyev himself believes that while natural ability plays a role, the most important factor is dedicated practice. He trains for several hours each day, playing through thousands of games and practicing mental visualisation exercises. He also maintains a high level of physical fitness, believing that physical health supports cognitive performance. During his record-breaking attempt, he rode an exercise bike between games to stay alert and focused.

H

The implications of blindfold chess research extend beyond the game itself. Understanding how expert chess players organise and retrieve information from memory could have applications in education, where similar techniques might help students learn more effectively. The research also sheds light on the broader question of how the human brain processes complex information and makes decisions under pressure. Gareyev's extraordinary abilities demonstrate that the human mind is capable of far more than we usually assume, and that with the right training and motivation, remarkable feats of memory and concentration are within reach.